The Role of Pet Attachment, Emotion Regulation and Perceived Parental Practices in Adults’ Psychological Well-Being. A Pilot Study
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24193/subbpsyped.2025.2.02Keywords:
psychological well-being, parental practices, emotion regulation, pet ownership, pet attachmentAbstract
Psychological well-being is widely regarded as a robust indicator and precursor of mental health. It is shaped by personal (e.g., emotion regulation strategies) and interpersonal factors, as well as life experiences encountered during development (e.g., used parental practices, emotional climate in the family, quality of social ties, etc.). Supportive parenting in childhood promotes better life-long mental health, whereas controlling or neglectful parenting practices increase vulnerability. Adequate attachment to pets may buffer unmet needs of belonging and foster resilience. The major objective of the present pilot study was to investigate the relationship and explicative power in adult psychological well-being of remembered early parental practices, pet-related variables (childhood desire for pet, current pet ownership) and adult psychological mechanisms, such as cognitive emotion regulation strategies and current attachment to pets. A total of 196 female participants were included in the study and were assessed along the following dimensions: psychological well-being, remembered parental practices, cognitive emotion regulation strategies (CERQ), current pet attachment, childhood desire to have pets, current pet ownership. We conducted three 2x2x2 ANCOVAs examining the dichotomized version (low vs. high) of each of the three remembered parental practices (warmth, rejection, overprotection), childhood desire to have pets (desired and owned vs. desired and not owned), and current pet ownership (yes-no), with emotion regulation strategies and current pet attachment entered as covariates, on psychological well-being. Across the tested models, adaptive and maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies emerged as the most powerful predictors of adult psychological well-being. We also found that pets may function as significant emotional resources, especially for those participants who remember to have experienced high levels of parental rejection in childhood. The results of this study may have valorous theoretical and practical implications by shedding further light on the relative importance of distal (remembered parental practices) and proximal factors (emotion regulation strategies, current pet ownership) in predicting psychological well-being.
References
Acoba, E. F. (2024). Social support and mental health: The mediating role of perceived stress. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1330720. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1330720
Adrian, J. A. L., Deliramich, A. N., & Frueh, B. C. (2009). Complicated grief and posttraumatic stress disorder in humans' response to the death of pets/animals. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 73(3), 176-187. https://doi.org/10.1521/bumc.2009.73.3.176
Aka,T., & Gencoz, T. (2014). Perceived parenting styles, emotion recognition and regulation in relation to psychological well-being. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 159(23), 529-533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.418
Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(2), 217–237.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004
Allen, J. P., & Miga, E. M. (2010). Attachment in adolescence: A move to the level of emotion regulation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27(2), 181-190. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407509360898
Allen, J. P., & Tan, J. S. (2016). The multiple facets of attachment in adolescence. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (3rd Ed., pp. 399–415). Guilford Press.
Alwin, D. F. (2004). Parenting practices. In J. Scott, J. Treas, & M. Richards (Eds.), The Blackwell companion to the sociology of families (pp. 142–157). Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470999004.ch9
Andreassen, G., Stenvold, L. C., & Rudmin, F. W. (2013). My dog is my best friend: Health benefits of emotional attachment to a pet dog. Psychology & Society, 5(2), 6-23.
Anthony, R. E., Paine, A. L., & Shelton, K. H. (2019). Adverse childhood experiences of children adopted from care: The importance of adoptive parental warmth for future child adjustment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(12), 2212. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16122212
Anthony, R. E., Paine, A. L., & Shelton, K. H. (2019). Adverse childhood experiences of children adopted from care: The importance of adoptive parental warmth for future child adjustment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(12), 2212.https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16122212
Aristotle. (2014). Nicomachean ethics. Cambridge University Press.
Arrindell, W. A., Sanavio, E., Aguilar, G., Sica, C., Hatzichristou, C., Eisemann, M., ...& Kállai, J. (1999). The development of a short form of the EMBU: Its appraisal with students in Greece, Guatemala, Hungary and Italy. Personality and Individual Differences, 27(4), 613-628.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00192-5
Arslan, İ. B., Lucassen, N., Keijsers, L., & Stevens, G. W. (2023). When too much help is of no help: Mothers’ and fathers’ perceived overprotective behavior and (mal)adaptive functioning in adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 52(5), 1010-1023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-022-01723-0
Balzarotti, S., Biassoni, F., Villani, D., Prunas, A., & Velotti, P. (2016). Individual differences in cognitive emotion regulation: Implications for subjective and psychological well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies: An Interdisciplinary Forum on Subjective Well-Being, 17(1), 125–143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9587-3
Barker, S. B., Knisely, J. S., McCain, N. L., Schubert, C. M., & Pandurangi, A. K. (2010). Exploratory study of stress-buffering response patterns from interaction with a therapy dog. Anthrozoös, 23(1), 79-91. https://doi.org/10.2752/175303710X12627079939341
Barklam, E. B., & Felisberti, F. M. (2023). Pet ownership and wellbeing during the COVID-19 pandemic: The importance of resilience and attachment to pets. Anthrozoös, 36(2), 215-236. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2022.2101248
Barnhart, C. M., Raval, V. V., Jansari, A., &Raval, P. H. (2013). Perceptions of parenting style among college students in India and the United States. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22(5), 684-693.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
Beetz, A., Uvnäs-Moberg, K., Julius, H., & Kotrschal, K. (2012). Psychosocial and psychophysiological effects of human-animal interactions: The possible role of oxytocin. Frontiers in Psychology, 3,234. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00234
Belsky, J., & Cassidy, J. (1994). Attachment and close relationships: An individual-difference perspective. Psychological Inquiry, 5(1), 27–30. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0501_3
Bernstein, G., & Triger, Z. (2010). Over-parenting. UC Davis Law Review, 44, 1221–1279.
Blanchard, T., Zaboski-Pena, L., Harroche, I., Théodon, O., & Meynadier, A. (2024). Investigating influences on pet attachment in France: Insights from the adaptation of the French Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale. Human-Animal Interactions, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1079/hai.2024.0027
Bodsworth, W., & Coleman, G. J. (2001). Child–companion animal attachment bonds in single and two-parent families. Anthrozoös, 14(4), 216-223. https://doi.org/10.2752/089279301786999391
Boonzaier, E. (1997). The Cape herders: A history of the Khoikhoi of southern Africa. New Africa Books.
Boreham, I. D., & Schutte, N. S. (2023). The relationship between purpose in life and depression and anxiety: A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 79(12), 2736-2767. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.23576
Borgi, M., Collacchi, B., Giuliani, A., & Cirulli, F. (2020). Dog visiting programs for managing depressive symptoms in older adults: a meta-analysis. The Gerontologist, 60(1), e66-e75. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gny149
Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd Ed.). Basic Books. (Original work published 1969).
Brooks, H. L., Rushton, K., Lovell, K., Bee, P., Walker, L., Grant, L., & Rogers, A. (2018). The power of support from companion animals for people living with mental health problems: A systematic review and narrative synthesis of the evidence. BMC psychiatry, 18(1), 31. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1613-2
Buckley, L., Atkins, T., Perera, W. et al. (2024). Trajectories of parental warmth and the role they play in explaining adolescent prosocial behavior. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 53, 526–536. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-023-01887-3.
Campos, R. C., Besser, A., & Blatt, S. J. (2013). Recollections of parental rejection, self-criticism and depression in suicidality. Archives of Suicide Research, 17(1), 58-74. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2013.748416
Castro, J., Toro, J., Van der Ende, J., & Arrindell, W. A. (1993). Exploring the feasibility of assessing perceived parental rearing styles in Spanish children with the EMBU. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 39, 47–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/002076409303900105
Chaplin, T. M., & Mauro, K. L., Niehaus C.E. (2022). Effects of parenting environment on child and adolescent social-emotional brain function. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 54, 341–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2021_276
Cordaro, D. T., Bai, Y., Bradley, C. M. et al. (2024). Contentment and self-acceptance: Wellbeing beyond happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 25, 15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-024-00729-8
Craig, L. (2006). Does father care mean fathers share? A comparison of how mothers and fathers in intact families spend time with children. Gender & Society, 20(2), 259-281. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205285212
Crawford, E. K., Worsham, N. L., & Swinehart, E. R. (2006). Benefits derived from companion animals, and the use of the term “attachment”. Anthrozoös, 19(2), 98-112. https://doi.org/10.2752/089279306785593757
Cui, L., Criss, M. M., Ratliff, E., Wu, Z., Houltberg, B. J., Silk, J. S., & Morris, A. S. (2020). Longitudinal links between maternal and peer emotion socialization and adolescent girls’ socioemotional adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 56(3), 595–607. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000861
Cui, L., Morris, A. S., Criss. M. M., Houltberg, B. J., & Silk, J. S. (2014). Parental psychological control and adolescent adjustment: The role of adolescent emotion regulation. Parenting: Science and Practice, 14(1), 47-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2014.880018
De Roo, M., Veenstra, R., & Kretschmer, T. (2022). Internalizing and externalizing correlates of parental overprotection as measured by the EMBU: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Social Development, 31(4), 962–983. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12590
De-Juanas, Á., Bernal Romero, T., & Goig, R. (2020). The relationship between psychological well-being and autonomy in young people according to age. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 559976. https://doi.org/10.1001/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.559976
Domaradzka, E., & Fajkowska, M. (2018). Cognitive emotion regulation strategies in anxiety and depression understood as types of personality. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 357036. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00856
Dowsett, E., Delfabbro, P., & Chur-Hansen, A. (2020). Adult separation anxiety disorder: The human-animal bond. Journal of Affective Disorders, 270, 90-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.03.147
Ein, N., Lingqian, L., & Vickers, K. (2018). The effect of pet therapy on the physiological and subjective stress response: A meta‐analysis. Stress and Health, 34(4), 477-489. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2812
Erikson, E. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. Psychological Issues, 1, 1–171.
Fagan, J., Day, R., Lamb, M. E., & Cabrera, N. J. (2014). Should researchers conceptualize differently the dimensions of parenting for fathers and mothers? Journal of Family Theory & Review, 6(4), 390–405. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12044
Fassi, L., Thomas, K., Parry, D. A., Leyland-Craggs, A., Ford, T. J., & Orben, A. (2024). Social media use and internalizing symptoms in clinical and community adolescent samples: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 178(8), 814–822. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2024.2078
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A.-G. (2013). G*Power (Version 3.1.9.7) [Computer Software]. Universität Kiel. http://www.*psychologie.hhu.de
Feeney, J. A. (2004). Transfer of attachment from parents to romantic partners: Effects of individual and relationship variables. Journal of Family Studies, 10(2), 220-238. https://doi.org/10.5172/jfs.327.10.2.220
Friedmann, E., Barker, S. B., & Allen, K. M. (2011). Physiological correlates of health benefits from pets. In P. McCardle, S. McCune, J. A. Griffin, & V. Maholmes (Eds.), How animals affect us: Examining the influences of human–animal interaction on child development and human health (pp. 163–182). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/12301-009
Garnefski, N., & Kraaij, V. (2006). Cognitive emotion regulation strategies and depressive symptoms: Differences between males and females. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(8), 1659–1669. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00083-7
Garnefski, N., & Kraaij, V. (2007). Relationships between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and depressive symptoms: A comparative study of five specific samples. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(8), 1659–1669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.12.009
Garnefski, N., & Kraaij, V. (2007). The Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 23(3), 141–149. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.23.3.141
Garnefski, N., Boon, S., & Kraaij, V. (2003). Relationships between cognitive strategies of adolescents and depressive symptomatology across different types of life event. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 401–408. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025994200559
Garnefski, N., Kraaij, V., & Spinhoven, P. (2001). Negative life events, cognitive emotion regulation and emotional problems. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 1311–1327. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00113-6
Garnefski, N., Kraaij, V., & Spinhoven, P. (2002). The cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire (CERQ): Development and psychometric evaluation. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 18(2), 141–149.
GBD (2019). Mental Disorders Collaborators. Global, regional, and national burden of 12 mental disorders in 204 countries and territories, 1990-2019: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet Psychiatry, 9(2), 137-150. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(21)00395-3
Gibson, J., & Kim, B. (2010). Non‐classical measurement error in long‐term retrospective recall surveys. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 72(5), 687-695. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.2010.00599.x
Goagoses, N., Bolz, T., Eilts, J., Schipper, N., Schuetz, J., Rademacher, A., ... & Koglin, U. (2023). Parenting dimensions/styles and emotion dysregulation in childhood and adolescence: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Current Psychology, 42(22), 18798-18822. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03037-7
Greenberg, P. E., Fournier, A. A., Sisitsky, T., Simes, M., Berman, R., Koenigsberg, S. H., & Kessler, R. C. (2021). The economic burden of adults with major depressive disorder in the United States (2010 and 2018). Pharmacoeconomics, 39(6), 653-665. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40273-021-01019-4
Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348
Gross, J. J., & Thompson, R. A. (2007). Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of Emotion Regulation (pp. 3–24). New York: Guilford Press.
Gumber, M., Kumar, V., & Patnaik, R. (2024). Nurture or Neglect: The parenting dynamics. International Journal of Indian Psychology, 12(4).
Hagerty, M. R. (2003). Was life better in the “good old days”? Intertemporal judgments of life satisfaction. Journal of Happiness Studies, 4(2), 115-139. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024406800912
Halman, L., & van Ingen, E. (2015). Secularization and changing moral views: European trends in church attendance and views on homosexuality, divorce, abortion, and euthanasia. European Sociological Review, 31(5), 616–627. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44075400
Halverson Jr, C. E. (1988). Remembering your parents: Reflections on the retrospective method. Journal of personality, 56(2), 435-443. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1988.tb00895.x
Harris, M. A., Donnellan, M. B., Guo, J., McAdams, D. P., Garnier Villarreal, M., & Brzezinski, K. H. (2017). Parental co-construction of 5- to 13-year-olds’ global self-esteem through reminiscing about past events. Child Development, 88, 1810 –1822. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12944
Hart, L. A., & Yamamoto, M. (2015). Recruiting psychosocial health effects of animals for families and communities: Transition to practice. In Handbook on animal-assisted therapy (pp. 53-72). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801292-5.00006-7
Hawkins, R. D., Robinson, C., & Brodie, Z. P. (2022). Child–dog attachment, emotion regulation and psychopathology: The mediating role of positive and negative behaviors. Behavioral Sciences, 12(4), 109. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs12040109
Herzog, H. (2014). Biology, culture, and the origins of pet-keeping. Animal Behavior and Cognition, 1(3), 296-308. https://doi.org/10.12966/abc.08.06.2014
Huang, F. (2025). The impact of childhood trauma on the mental health problems of primary education preservice teachers: The mediating role of rumination and the moderating role of self-acceptance. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12, 456. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04433-7
IBM Corp. (2019). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows (Version 26.0) [Computer software]. IBM Corp.
Johnson, T. P., Garrity, T. F., & Stallones, L. (1992). Psychometric evaluation of the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS). Anthrozoös, 5(3), 160-175. https://doi.org/10.2752/089279392787011395
Jopling, E., Tracy, A., & LeMoult, J. (2020). Childhood maltreatment, negative self-referential processing, and depressive symptoms during stress. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 79-87. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S231505
Kahneman, D., Diener, E., & Schwartz, N. (Eds.). (1999). Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology. New York: Russell Sage Found.
Kállay, É., & Cheie, L. (2022). “Can I still blame my parents?” Links between perceived parenting, cognitive emotion regulation strategies, and adolescent mental health. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03721-8
Kállay, É., & Rus, C. L. (2014). Psychometric properties of the 44-item version of Ryff’s Psychological Well-Being Scale. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 30(1), 15-21. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000163
Kállay, É., & Visu-Petra, L. (2014). Indicators of cognitive and emotional functioning in first-year master students in conference interpreting: A focus on individual differences. Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal, 18(3), 209-228.
Karanikolos, M., Mladovsky, P., Cylus, J., Thomson, S., Basu, S., Stuckler, D., Mackenbach, J. P., & McKee, M. (2013). Financial crisis, austerity, and health in Europe. Lancet, 381(9874), 1323-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60102-6
Keyes, C. L. M., & Lopez, S. J. (2002). Toward a science of mental health: Positive directions in diagnosis and treatment. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The handbook of positive psychology (pp. 45–59). Oxford University Press.
Keyes, C. L. M., Hybels, C. F., Milstein, G., & Proeschold Bell, R. J. (2020). Are changes in positive mental health associated with increased likelihood of depression over a two-year period? A test of the mental health promotion and protection hypotheses. Journal of Affective Disorders, 270, 136–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.03.056
Keyes, C. L. M., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D. (2002). Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 1007–1022. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.1007
Kieling, C., Buchweitz, C., Caye, A., et al. (2024). Worldwide prevalence and disability from mental disorders across childhood and adolescence: Evidence from the global burden of disease study. JAMA Psychiatry, 81(4), 347–356. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2023.5051
Koontz, J. L. (2009). Stress, social support, health and human-animal bond in single mothers (Doctoral dissertation, Northcentral University).
Kraaij, V., & Garnefski, N. (2019). The Behavioral Emotion Regulation Questionnaire: Development, psychometric properties and relationships with emotional problems and the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire. Personality and Individual Differences, 137, 56–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.07.036
Kraiss, J. T., Ten Klooster, P. M., Moskowitz, J. T., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2020). The relationship between emotion regulation and well-being in patients with mental disorders: A meta-analysis. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 102, 152189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2020.152189
Kurdek, L. A. (2009). Pet dogs as attachment figures for adult owners. Journal of Family Psychology, 23(4), 439. ttps://doi.org/10.1037/a0014979
Lan, L., & Wang, X. (2023). Parental rejection and adolescents' learning ability: A multiple mediating effects of values and self-esteem. Behavioral Sciences, 13(2), 143. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13020143
le Roux, M. C., & Wright, S. (2020). The relationship between pet attachment, life satisfaction, and perceived stress: Results from a South African online survey. Anthrozoös, 33(3), 371-385. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2020.1746525
Leary, M. R. (2012). Sociometer theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (pp. 151–159). Sage Publications Ltd.
Lee, V. K., & Chai, M. S. (2015). Dog ownership, perceived social supports and stress among university students. American Journal of Applied Psychology, 4(3-1), 45-50.
Lindsey, E. W. (2021). Emotion regulation with parents and friends and adolescent internalizing and externalizing behavior. Children, 8(4), 299. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8040299
Liu, Q., & Wang, Z. (2021). Associations between parental emotional warmth, parental attachment, peer attachment, and adolescents’ character strengths. Children and Youth Services Review, 120, 105765. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105765
Lu, Y. (2025). A theoretical review of human–pet relationships from the perspective of attachment theory: Toward interdisciplinary integration and conceptual reconstruction. Advances in Social Behavior Research, 16(5), 116-120. https://doi.org/10.54254/2753-7102/2025.25477
Mann, F., Wang, J., Pearce, E., Ma, R., Schlief, M., Lloyd-Evans, B., Ikhtabi, S., & Johnson, S. (2022). Loneliness and the onset of new mental health problems in the general population. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 57(11), 2161-2178. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-022-02261-7.
Martens, P., Enders-Slegers, M. J., & Walker, J. K. (2016). The emotional lives of companion animals: Attachment and subjective claims by owners of cats and dogs. Anthrozoös, 29(1), 73-88. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2015.1075299
Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being (2nd Ed.). New York: Van Nostrand.
McConnell, A. R., Brown, C. M., Shoda, T. M., Stayton, L. E., & Martin, C. E. (2011). Friends with benefits: on the positive consequences of pet ownership. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(6), 1239-52. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024506
McGorry, P. D., Mei, C., Dalal, N., Alvarez-Jimenez, M., Blakemore, S. J., Browne, V., Dooley, B., Hickie, I. B., Jones, P. B., McDaid, D., Mihalopoulos, C., Wood, S. J., El Azzouzi, F. A., Fazio, J., Gow, E., Hanjabam, S., Hayes, A., Morris, A., Pang, E., ... Killackey, E. (2024). The Lancet Psychiatry Commission on youth mental health. The Lancet Psychiatry, 11(9), 731-774. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(24)00163-9
Mertika, A., Mitskidou, P., & Stalikas, A. (2020). “Positive Relationships” and their impact on wellbeing: A review of current literature. Psychology: The Journal of the Hellenic Psychological Society, 25(1), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.12681/psy_hps.25340
Mewes, J., Fairbrother, M., Giordano, G. N., Wu, C., & Wilkes, R. (2021). Experiences matter: A longitudinal study of individual-level sources of declining social trust in the United States. Social Science Research, 95, 102537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2021.102537
Misuraca, G. O., Francis, L. M., Mansour, K. A., Greenwood, C. J., Olsson, C. A., & Macdonald, J. A. (2024). Shame and depressive symptoms in men: The moderating role of environmental mastery and purpose in life. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 70(6), 1175-1185. https://doi.org/10.1177/00207640241263245
Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The Role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16(2), 361-388. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.x
Muris, P., Meesters, C., & van Brakel, A. (2003). Assessment of anxious rearing behaviors with a modified version of “Egna Minnen Beträffande Uppfostran” questionnaire for children. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 25(4), 229–237. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025894928131
Nezlek, J. B., Cypryańska, M., & Gutral, J. (2025). Environmental mastery mediates relationships between mindsets and well-being. PLoS One, 20(7), e0326997. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326997
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(5), 400–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x
Northrope, K., Shnookal, J., Ruby, M. B., & Howell, T. J. (2025). The relationship between attachment to pets and mental health and wellbeing: A systematic review. Animals, 15(8), 1143. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15081143
Orth, U., Maes, J., & Schmitt, M. (2015). Self-esteem development across the life span: A longitudinal study with a large sample from Germany. Developmental Psychology, 51(2), 248. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038481
Parker, G., Tupling, H., & Brown, L. B. (1979). A parental bonding instrument. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 52(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.1979.tb02487.x
Parsons, C. E., Young, K. S., Murray, L., Stein, A., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2010). The functional neuroanatomy of the evolving parent-infant relationship. Progress in Neurobiology, 91(3), 220-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2010.03.001
Pastorelli, C., Zuffianò, A., Lansford, J. E., Thartori, E., Bornstein, M. H., Chang, L., Deater- Deckard, K., Di Giunta, L., Dodge, K. A., Gurdal, S., Liu, Q., Long, Q., Oburu, P., Skinner, A. T., Sorbring, E., Steinberg, L., Tapanya, S., Uribe Tirado, L. M., Yotanyamaneewong, S., Al-Hassan, S., … Bacchini, D. (2021). Positive Youth Development: Parental Warmth, Values, and Prosocial Behavior in 11 Cultural Groups. Journal of Youth Development: Bridging Research and Practice, 16(2-3), 379–401. https://doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2021.1026
Paul, K. I., & Moser, K. (2009). Unemployment impairs mental health: Meta-analyses. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 74(3), 264–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2009.01.001
Perris, C., Jacobsson, L., Lindström, H., von Knorring, L., & Perris, H. (1980). Development of a new inventory for assessing memories of parental rearing behaviour. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 61(4), 265–274. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1980.tb00581.x
Perțe, A., & Miclea, M. (2011). The standardization of the cognitive emotional regulation questionnaire (CERQ) on Romanian population. Cognition, Brain, Behavior, 15(1), 111.
Peterson, H., & Engwall, K. (2019). “Why would you want a baby when you could have a dog?” Voluntarily childless women’s “paternal” feelings, longing and ambivalence. Social Sciences, 8(4), 126. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci8040126
Pinquart, M., & Gerke, D.-C. (2019). Associations of parenting styles with self-esteem in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28, 2017–2035. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01417-5
Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Rohmalimna, A., Yeau, O., & Sie, P. (2022). The role of parental parenting in the formation of the child’s self-concept. World Psychology, 1(2), 36-45.
Rohner, R.P, Khaleque, A. & Cournoyer, D.E. (2005). Parental acceptance-rejection: Theory, methods, cross cultural evidence and implications. Ethos, 33, 299-334. https://doi.org/10.1525/eth.2005.33.3.299
Romanello, M., McGushin, A., Di Napoli, C., Drummond, P., Hughes, N., Jamart, L., Kennard, H., Lampard, P., Solano Rodriguez, B., Arnell, N., Ayeb-Karlsson, S., Belesova, K., Cai, W., Campbell-Lendrum, D., Capstick, S., Chambers, J., Chu, L., Ciampi, L., Dalin, C., … Hamilton, I. (2021). The 2021 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: Code red for a healthy future. The Lancet, 398(10311), 1619–1662. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01787-6
Rothwell, J. T., & Davoodi, T. (2024). Parent-child relationship quality predicts higher subjective well-being in adulthood across a diverse group of countries. Communications Psychology, 2, 110. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44271-024-00161-x
Ruan, Q. N., Shen, G. H., Yang, J. S., & Yan, W. J. (2023). The interplay of self-acceptance, social comparison and attributional style in adolescent mental health: Cross-sectional study. British Journal of Psychiatry Open, 9(6), e202. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2023.594
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141-166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic dialectical perspective. In E. L. Deci & R.M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of Self-Determination Research (pp. 3–34). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of personality and social psychology, 57(6), 1069.
Ryff, C. D. (2014). Psychological well-being revisited: Advances in the science and practice of eudaimonia. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 83(1), 10-28. https://doi.org/10.1159/000353263
Ryff, C. D. (2023). Contributions of eudaimonic well-being to mental health practice. Mental Health and Social Inclusion, 27(4), 276-293. https://doi.org/10.1108/mhsi-12-2022-0091
Ryff, C. D., Morozink Boylan, J. M., & Kirsch, J. A. (2021). Eudaimonic and hedonic well-being: An integrative perspective with linkages to sociodemographic factors and health. In M. T. Lee, L. D. Kubzansky, & T. J. VanderWeele (Eds.), Measuring well-being: Interdisciplinary perspectives from the social sciences and the humanities (pp. 92–135). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197512531.003.0005
Ryff, C.D., & Singer, B.H. (2008). Know thyself and become what you are: A eudaimonic approach to psychological well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 13–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9019-0
Sanchez-Sanchez, H., Schoeps, K., & Montoya-Castilla, I. (2025). Emotion regulation strategies and psychological well-being in emerging adulthood: Mediating role of optimism and self-esteem in a university student sample. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 929. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070929
Sandøe, P., Palmer, C., Corr, S. A., Springer, S., & Lund, T. B. (2023). Do people really care less about their cats than about their dogs? A comparative study in three European countries. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, 1237547. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1237547
Schäfer, J. Ö., Naumann, E., Holmes, E. A., Tuschen-Caffier, B., & Samson, A. C. (2017). Emotion regulation strategies in depressive and anxiety symptoms in youth: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46(2), 261-276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0585-0
Schwarzer, N. H., Heim, N., Gingelmaier, S., Fonagy, P., & Nolte, T. (2024). Mentalizing as a predictor of well-being and emotion regulation: Longitudinal evidence from a community Sample of young adults. Psychological Reports, 332941241261902. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294124126190
Segrin, C., Woszidlo, A., Givertz, M., & Montgomery, N. (2013). Parent and child traits associated with overparenting. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 32(6), 569–595. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2013.32.6.569
Suneel, I., Schwaiger, E., Zehra, S. S., & Nazim, A. (2022). Differences in perceived parental practices across attachment styles in adult children of alcoholic fathers. Heliyon, 8(8). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10317
Sutin, A.R., Stephan, Y., Luchetti, M. et al. (2025). Purpose in life and lung function: An individual-participant meta-analysis of six cohort studies. Respiratory Research, 26, 171. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-025-03247-0
Tani, F., Pascuzzi, D., & Raffagnino, R. (2017). The Relationship Between Perceived Parenting Style and Emotion Regulation Abilities in Adulthood. Journal of Adult Development, 25(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-017-9269-6
Teo, J. T., & Thomas, S. J. (2019). Psychological mechanisms predicting wellbeing in pet owners: Rogers’ core conditions versus Bowlby’s attachment. Anthrozoös, 32(3), 399-417. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2019.1598660
Teramoto Pedrotti, J., Lopez, S. J., McDermott, R. C., & Snyder, C. R. (2025). Positive psychology. The scientific and practical explorations of human strengths (5th Ed.). London, UK: Sage Press.
Troy, A. S., Wilhelm, F. H., Shallcross, A. J., & Mauss, I. B. (2010). Seeing the silver lining: Cognitive reappraisal ability moderates the relationship between stress and depressive symptoms. Emotion, 10(6), 783–795.
Ungar, M. (2009). Overprotective parenting: Helping parents provide children the right amount of risk and responsibility. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 37(3), 258–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926180802534247
van Daalen, K. R., Tonne, C., Semenza, J. C., Rocklöv, J., Markandya, A., Dasandi, N., Jankin, S., Achebak, H., Ballester, J., Bechara, H., Beck, T. M., Callaghan, M. W., Carvalho, B. M., Chambers, J., Pradas, M. C., Courtenay, O., Dasgupta, S., Eckelman, M. J., Farooq, Z., … Lowe, R. (2024). The 2024 Europe report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: Unprecedented warming demands unprecedented action. The Lancet Public Health, 9(7), e495–e522. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(24)00055-0
Wang, D., Jiang, Q., Yang, Z., & Choi, J. K. (2021). The longitudinal influences of adverse childhood experiences and positive childhood experiences at family, school, and neighborhood on adolescent depression and anxiety. Journal of Affective Disorders, 292, 542-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.05.108
Wanser, S. H., Vitale, K. R., Thielke, L. E., Brubaker, L., & Udell, M. A. (2019). Spotlight on the psychological basis of childhood pet attachment and its implications. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 12, 469–479. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S158998
Wen Li, L., Yusof, H., Zakaria, N., & Ali, A. (2017). Health and nutritional status among pet owners and non-pet owners in Kuala Lumpur. Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 22, 104–112.
Westerhof, G. J., & Keyes, C. L. (2010). Mental illness and mental health: The Two Continua Model across the lifespan. Journal of Adult Development, 17(2), 110-119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-009-9082-y
World Health Organization. (2022). World mental health report: Transforming mental health for all. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240049338
Wood, L., Martin, K., Christian, H., Nathan, A., Lauritsen, C., Houghton, S., ... & McCune, S. (2015). The pet factor-companion animals as a conduit for getting to know people, friendship formation and social support. PloS One, 10(4), e0122085. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0122085
Wu, C. S. T., Wong, R. S. M., & Chu, W. H. (2018). The association of pet ownership and attachment with perceived stress among Chinese adults. Anthrozoös, 31(5), 577-586. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2018.1505269
Wu, S. L., Woo, P. J., Yap, C. C., & Lim, G. J. R. Y. (2023). Parenting Practices and Adolescents' Mental Health: The Mediating Role of Perceived Maternal and Paternal Acceptance-Rejection and Adolescents' Self-Efficacy. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(2), 1052. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20021052
Yu, Z., & Liu, W. (2025). The psychological resilience of teenagers in terms of their everyday emotional balance and the impact of emotion regulation strategies. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1381239. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1381239
Zhang, Z., Jackson, S. L., Gillespie, C., Merritt, R., & Yang, Q. (2023). Depressive symptoms and mortality among US adults. JAMA Network Open, 6(10), e2337011. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.37011
Zilcha-Mano, S., Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2011). An attachment perspective on human–pet relationships: Conceptualization and assessment of pet attachment orientations. Journal of Research in Personality, 45(4), 345–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2011.04.001
Zilcha-Mano, S., Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2012). Pets as safe havens and secure bases: The moderating role of pet attachment orientations. Journal of Research in Personality, 46(5), 571-580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2012.06.005.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai Psychologia-Paedagogia
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
